THE RULE OF SAINT BENEDICT
Saint
Benedict of Nursia (c.480–547) is the father of Western Monasticism because of
his main achievement, the “Rule”
containing precepts for his monks which
became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. He
founded twelve communities for monks at Subiaco,
about 40 miles to the east of Rome, before moving to Monte Cassino in the mountains of southern Italy. His “Rule” is heavily influenced by the
writings of John Cassian, and shows strong affinity with the Rule
of the Master.
The
Rule of Saint Benedict (Regula Benedicti) is a book of precepts written by St.
Benedict of Nursia for monks living communally under the authority of an abbot.
Since about the 7th century it has also been adopted by communities
of women. During the 1500 years of its existence, it has become the leading
guide in Western Christianity for monastic living in community.
The
spirit of St Benedict's Rule is summed up in the motto of the Benedictine
Confederation: pax ("peace") and the traditional ora et labora
("pray and work").
Compared
to other precepts, the Rule provides a moderate path between individual zeal
and formulaic institutionalism; because of this middle ground it has been
widely popular. Benedict's concerns were the needs of monks in a community
environment: namely, to establish due order, to foster an understanding of the
relational nature of human beings, and to provide a spiritual father to support
and strengthen the individual's ascetic effort and the spiritual growth that is
required for the fulfillment of the human vocation, theosis.
INFLUENCES
John Cassian is a Christian
theologian and one of the ‘desert fathers’. He wrote two major spiritual works,
the Institutions
and the Conferences. In these, he codified and transmitted the wisdom
of the Desert Fathers of Egypt. These books were written at the request of
Castor, Bishop of Apt, of the subsequent Pope Leo I, and of several Gallic
bishops and monks. His books were written in Latin, in a simple, direct style.
They were swiftly translated into Greek, for the use of Eastern monks, an
unusual honor.
A.
The Institutions
(De institutis coenobiorum) deal with
the external organization of monastic communities.
Books
1-4 discusses clothing, prayer and rules of monastic life.
Books
5-12 are rules on morality, specifically addressing the eight vices - gluttony,
lust, avarice, pride, wrath, envy, acedia, and boasting - and what to do to cure
these vices.
B.
the Conferences
(Collationes patrum in scetica eremo)
deal with "the training of the inner man and the perfection of the
heart." It summarized the important conversations that Cassian had with
elders from Scetis about principles of the spiritual and ascetic life. This
book addresses specific problems of spiritual theology and the ascetic life. It
was later read in Benedictine communities before a light meal, and from the
Latin title, Collationes, comes the
word collation in the sense of "light meal."
Furthermore,
the Regula
Magistri or Rule of the Master is an anonymous sixth-century
collection of monastic precepts. It was also regarded to influence the Rule of
Saint Benedict. It is no longer in active use by any monastic community.
But
it also, and this persuaded most religious communities founded throughout the
Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, the Rule of Benedict became one of the
most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason,
Benedict is often called the founder of western Christian monasticism.
ANALYSIS OF
THE BENEDICTINE RULE
Of
the seventy-three chapters comprising the Rule, nine treat of the duties of the
abbot, thirteen regulate the worship of God, twenty-nine are concerned with
discipline and the penal code, ten refer to the internal administration of the
monastery, and the remaining twelve consist of miscellaneous regulations.
The
Rule opens with a prologue or hortatory preface, in which St. Benedict sets
forth the main principles of the religious life, namely: the renunciation of
one's own will and the taking up of arms under the banner of Christ. He
proposes to establish a "school" in which the science of salvation
shall be taught, so that by persevering in the monastery till death his disciples
may "deserve to become partakers of Christ's kingdom".
In
Chapter 1 are defined the four principle kinds of monks: (1) Cenobites, those
living in a monastery under an abbot; (2) Anchorites, or hermits, living a
solitary life after long probation in the monastery; (3) Sarabites, living by
twos and threes together, without any fixed rule or lawfully constituted
superior; and (4) Gyrovagi, a species of monastic vagrants, whose lives spent
in wandering from one monastery to another, only served to bring discredit on
the monastic profession. It is for the first of these classes, as the most
stable kind, that the Rule is written.
Chapter
2 describes the necessary qualifications of an abbot and forbids him to make
distinction of persons in the monastery except for particular merit, warning
him at the same time that he will be answerable for the salvation of the souls
committed to his care.
Chapter
3 ordains the calling of the brethren to council upon all affairs of importance
to the community.
Chapter
4 summarizes the duties of the Christian life under seventy-two precepts, which
are called "instruments of good works" and are mainly Scriptural
either in letter or in spirit.
Chapter
5 prescribes prompt, cheerful, and absolute obedience to the superior in all things
lawful, which obedience is called the first degree of humility.
Chapter
6 deals with silence, recommending moderation in the use of speech, but by no
means prohibiting profitable or necessary conversation.
Chapter
7 treats of humility, which virtue is divided into twelve degrees or steps in
the ladder that leads to heaven. They are: (1) fear of God; (2) repression of
self-will; (3) submission of the will to superiors; (4) obedience in hard and
difficult matters; (5) confession of faults; (6) acknowledgment of one's own
worthlessness; (7) preference of others to self; (8) avoidance of singularity;
(9) speaking only in due season; (10) stifling of unseemly laughter; (11)
repression of pride; (12) exterior humility.
Chapters
9-19 are occupied with the regulation of the Divine Office, the opus Dei to
which "nothing is to be preferred", or Canonical Hours, seven of the
day and one of the night. Detailed arrangements are made as to the number of
Psalms, etc., to be recited in winter and summer, on Sundays, weekdays, Holy
Days, and at other times.
Chapter
19 emphasizes the reverence due to the presence of God.
Chapter
20 directs that prayer in common be short.
Chapter
21 provides for the appointment of deans over every ten monks, and prescribes
the manner in which they are to be chosen.
Chapter
22 regulates all matters relating to the dormitory, as, for example, that each
monk is to have a separate bed and is to sleep in his habit, so as to be ready
to rise without delay, and that a light shall burn in the dormitory throughout
the night.
Chapter
23-30 deal with offences against the Rule and a graduated scale of penalties is
provided: first, private admonition; next, public reproof; then separation from
the brethren at meals and elsewhere; then scourging; and finally expulsion;
though this last is not to be resorted to until every effort to reclaim the
offender has failed. And even in this last case, the outcast must be received
again, should he so desire, but after the third expulsion all return is finally
barred.
Chapter
31 and 32 order the appointment of a cellarer and other officials, to take
charge of the various goods of the monastery, which are to be treated with as
much care as the consecrated vessels of the altar.
Chapter
33 forbids the private possession of anything without the leave of the abbot,
who is, however, bound to supply all necessaries.
Chapter
34 prescribes a just distribution of such things.
Chapter
35 arranges for the service in the kitchen by all monks in turn.
Chapter
36 and 37 order due care for the sick, the old, and the young. They are to have
certain dispensations from the strict Rule, chiefly in the matter of food.
Chapter
38 prescribes reading aloud during meals, which duty is to be performed by such
of the brethren, week by week, as can do so with edification to the rest. Signs
are to be used for whatever may be wanted at meals, so that no voice shall
interrupt that of the reader. The reader is to have his meal with the servers
after the rest have finished, but he is allowed a little food beforehand in
order to lessen the fatigue of reading.
Chapter
39 and 40 regulate the quantity and quality of the food. Two meals a day are
allowed and two dishes of cooked food at each. A pound of bread also and a
hemina (probably about half a pint) of wine for each monk. Flesh-meat is
prohibited except for the sick and the weak, and it is always within the
abbot's power to increase the daily allowance when he sees fit.
Chapter
41 prescribes the hours of the meals, which are to vary according to the time
of year.
Chapter
42 enjoins the reading of the "Conferences" of Cassian or some other
edifying book in the evening before Compline and orders that after Compline the
strictest silence shall be observed until the following morning.
Chapters
43-46 relate to minor faults, such as coming late to prayer or meals, and
impose various penalties for such transgressions.
Chapter
47 enjoins on the abbot the duty of calling the brethren to the "world of
God" in choir, and of appointing those who are to chant or read.
Chapter
48 emphasizes the importance of manual labor and arranges time to be devoted to
it daily. This varies according to the season, but is apparently never less
than about five hours a day. The times at which the lesser of the "day-hours"
(Prime, Terce, Sext, and None) are to be recited control the hours of labour
somewhat, and the abbot is instructed not only to see that all work, but also
that the employments of each are suited to their respective capacities.
Chapter
49 treats of the observance of Lent, and recommends some voluntary self-denial
for that season, with the abbot's sanction.
Chapters
50 and 51 contain rules for monks who are working in the fields or traveling.
They are directed to join in spirit, as far as possible, with their brethren in
the monastery at the regular hours of prayers.
Chapter
52 commands that the oratory be used for purposes of devotion only.
Chapter
53 is concerned with the treatment of guests, who are to be received "as
Christ Himself". This Benedictine hospitality is a feature which has in
all ages been characteristic of the order. The guests are to be met with due
courtesy by the abbot or his deputy, and during their stay they are to be under
the special protection of a monk appointed for the purpose, but they are not to
associate with the rest of the community except by special permission.
Chapter
54 forbids the monks to receive letters or gifts without the abbot's leave.
Chapter
55 regulates the clothing of the monks. It is to be sufficient in both quantity
and quality and to be suited to the climate and locality, according to the
discretion of the abbot, but at the same time it must be as plain and cheap as
is consistent with due economy. Each monk is to have a change of garments, to
allow for washing, and when traveling shall be supplied with clothes of rather
better quality. The old habits are to be put aside for the poor.
Chapter
56 directs that the abbot shall take his meals with the guests.
Chapter
57 enjoins humility on the craftsmen of the monastery, and if their work is for
sale, it shall be rather below than above the current trade price.
Chapter
58 lays down rules for the admission of new members, which is not to be made
too easy. These matters have since been regulated by the Church, but in the
main St. Benedict's outline is adhered to. The postulant first spends a short
time as a guest; then he is admitted to the novitiate, where under the care of
a novice-master, his vocation is severely tested; during this time he is always
free to depart. If after twelve month' probation, he still persevere, he may be
admitted to the vows of Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience, by which
he binds himself for life to the monastery of his profession.
Chapter
59 allows the admission of boys to the monastery under certain conditions.
Chapter
60 regulates the position of priests who may desire to join the community. They
are charged with setting an example of humility to all, and can only exercise
their priestly functions by permission of the abbot.
Chapter
61 provides for the reception of strange monks as guests, and for their
admission if desirous of joining the community.
Chapter
62 lays down that precedence in the community shall be determined by the date
of admission, merit of life, or the appointment of the abbot.
Chapter
64 orders that the abbot be elected by his monks and that he be chosen for his
charity, zeal, and discretion.
Chapter
65 allows the appointment of a provost, or prior, if need be, but warns such a
one that he is to be entirely subject to the abbot and may be admonished,
deposed, or expelled for misconduct.
Chapter
66 provides for the appointment of a porter, and recommends that each monastery
should be, if possible, self-contained, so as to avoid the need of intercourse
with the outer world.
Chapter
67 gives instruction as to the behavior of a monk who is sent on a journey.
Chapter
68 orders that all shall cheerfully attempt to do whatever is commanded them,
however hard it may seem.
Chapter
69 forbids the monks to defend one another.
Chapter
70 prohibits them from striking one another.
Chapter
71 encourages the brethren to be obedient not only to the abbot and his
officials, but also to one another.
Chapter
72 is a brief exhortation to zeal and fraternal charity
Chapter
73 is an epilogue declaring that this Rule is not offered as an ideal of
perfection, but merely as a means towards godliness and is intended chiefly for
beginners in the spiritual life.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE BENEDICTINE RULE
1. The
Rule has a unique spirit of BALANCE,
MODERATION and REASONABLENESS (ἐπιείκεια,
epieikeia)
- It
manifested its wonderful discretion and moderation, its extreme reasonableness,
and its keen insight into the capabilities as well as the weaknesses of human
nature.
- There
are no excesses, no extraordinary asceticism, no narrow-mindedness, but rather
a series of sober regulations based on sound common sense.
- This
is contrary to the austerity and asceticism of the monks of Egypt.
2. ON FOOD: With regard to food, the
Egyptian ascetics reduced it to a minimum, many of them eating only twice or
thrice a week, whilst Cassian describes a meal consisting of parched vetches
with salt and oil, three olives, two prunes, and a fig, as a "sumptuous
repast" (Coll. vii, 1). St. Benedict, on the other hand, though he
restricts the use of flesh-meat to the sick, orders a pound of bread daily and
two dishes of cooked food at each meal, of which there were two in summer and
one in winter. And he concedes also an allowance of wine, though admitting that
it should not properly be the drink of monks (Chapter 40).
3. ON CLOTHING: St. Benedict's provision
that habits were to fit, to be sufficiently warm, and not too old, was in great
contrast to the poverty of the Egyptian monks, whose clothes, Abbot Pambo laid
down, should be so poor that if left on the road no one would be tempted to
take them (Apophthegmata, in P.G. LXV, 369).
4. IN THE MATTER OF SLEEP: The Egyptian
monks regarded diminution[1]
as one of their most valued forms of austerity, St. Benedict ordered from six
to eight hours of unbroken sleep a day, with the addition of a siesta in
summer. The Egyptian monks, moreover, often slept on the bare ground, with
stones or mats for pillows, and often merely sitting or merely reclining, as
directed in the Pachomian Rule, whilst Abbot John was unable to mention without
shame the finding of a blanket in a hermit's cell (Cassian, Coll. xix, 6). St.
Benedict, however, allowed not only a blanket but also a coverlet, a mattress,
and a pillow to each monk. This comparative liberality with regard to the
necessaries of life, though plain and meagre perhaps, if tested by modern
notions of comfort, was far greater than amongst the Italian poor of the sixth
century or even amongst many of the European peasantry at the present day.
St.
Benedict's aim seems to have been to keep the bodies of his monks in a healthy
condition by means of proper clothing, sufficient food, and ample sleep, so
that they might thereby be more fit for the due performance of the Divine
Office and be freed from all that distracting rivalry in asceticism which has
already been mentioned.
There
was, however, no desire to lower the ideal or to minimize the self-sacrifice
that the adoption of the monastic life entailed, but rather the intention of
bringing it into line with the altered circumstances of Western environment,
which necessarily differed much from those of Egypt and the East. The wisdom
and skill with which he did this is evident in every page of the Rule, a
learned and mysterious abridgement of all the doctrines of the Gospel, all the
institutions of the Fathers, and all the Counsels of Perfection".
5. COLLECTIVISM: St. Benedict perceived
the necessity for a permanent and uniform rule of government in place of the
arbitrary and variable choice of models furnished by the lives and maxims of
the Fathers of the Desert. And so we have the characteristic of collectivism, exhibited in his
insistence on the common life, as opposed to the individualism of the Egyptian
monks. One of the objects he had in view in writing his Rule was the
extirpation of the Sarabites and Gyrovagi, whom he so strongly condemns in his
first chapter and of whose evil lives he had probably had painful experience
during his early days at Subiaco.
On the Types of Monks
(Chapter 1)
aa)
Cenobites -
They live in a monastery, serving under a Rule and an Abbot.
bb)
Anchorites or Hermits – They live a solitary
life after long probation in the monastery.
cc)
Sarabites – They live by
two’s and three’s together, without any fixed rule or lawfully constituted
superior; and
6. STABILITY: To further the aim of
collectivism, he introduced the vow of
Stability, which becomes the guarantee of success and permanence. It is only
another example of the family idea that pervaded the entire Rule, by means of
which the members of the community are bound together by a family tie, and each
takes upon himself the obligation of persevering in his monastery until death,
unless sent elsewhere by his superiors.
It secures to the
community as a whole, and to every member of it individually, a share in all
the fruits that may arise from the labors of each monk, and it gives to each of
them that strength and vitality which necessarily result from being one of a
united family, all bound in a similar way and all pursuing the same end.
Thus, whatever the monk
does, he does it not as an independent individual but as part of a larger
organization, and the community itself thus becomes one united whole rather
than a mere agglomeration of independent members.
7. CONVERSION OF LIFE: The vow of
Conversion of Life indicates the personal striving after perfection that must
be the aim of every Benedictine monk. All the legislation of the Rule, the
constant repression of self, the conforming of one's every action to a definite
standard, and the continuance of this form of life to the end of one's days, is
directed towards "putting off the old man and putting on the new", and
thereby accomplishing the conversio morum
which is inseparable from a life-long perseverance in the maxims of the Rule.
8. OBEDIENCE: The practice of obedience is
a necessary feature in St. Benedict's idea of the religious life, if not indeed
its very essence. Not only is a special chapter of the Rule devoted to it, but
it is repeatedly referred to as a guiding principle in the life of the monk; so
essentials it that it is the subject of a special vow in every religious
institute, Benedictine or otherwise.
In St. Benedict's eyes it is one of the positive works to
which the monk binds himself, for he calls it labor obedientiae (Prologue). It is to be cheerful, unquestioning,
and prompt; to the abbot chiefly, who is to be obeyed as holding the place of
Christ, and also to all the brethren according to the dictates of fraternal
charity, as being "the path that leads to God" (Chapter 71).
It is likewise extended to hard and even impossible things,
the latter being at least attempted in all humility. In connection with the
question of obedience there is the further question as to the system of
government embodied in the Rule. The life of the community centers round the
abbot as the father of the family. Much latitude with regard to details is left
to "discretion and judgment", but this power, so far from being
absolute or unlimited, is safeguarded by the obligation laid upon him of
consulting the brethren - either the seniors only or else the entire community
- upon all matters affecting their welfare.
And on the other hand, wherever there seems to be a certain
amount of liberty left to the monks themselves, this, in turn, is protected
against indiscretion by the repeated insistence on the necessity for the
abbot's sanction and approval.
What Kind of Man the
Abbot ought to be (Chapter 2)
Chapter
2 describes the necessary qualifications of an abbot and forbids him to make
distinction of persons in the monastery except for particular merit, warning
him at the same time that he will be answerable for the salvation of the souls
committed to his care.
9. POVERTY AND CHASTITY: The vows of
Poverty and Chastity, though not explicitly mentioned by St. Benedict, as in
the rules of other orders, are yet implied so clearly as to form an
indisputable and essential part of the life for which he legislates. Thus by
means of the vows and the practice of the various virtues necessary to their
proper observance, it will be seen that St. Benedict's Rule contains not merely
a series of laws regulating the external details of monastic life, but also all
the principles of perfection according to the Evangelical Counsels.
10. BINDING POWER OF THE RULE: With regard
to the obligation or binding power of the Rule, we must distinguish between the
statutes or precepts and the counsels. By the former would be meant those laws
which either command or prohibit in an absolute manner, and by the latter those
that are merely recommendations. It is generally held by commentators that the
precepts of the Rule bind only under the penalty of venial sin, and the
counsels not even under that. Really grave transgressions against the vows, on
the other hand, would fall under the category of mortal sins. It must be
remembered, however, that in all these matters the principles of moral
theology, canon law, the decisions of the Church, and the regulations of the
Constitutions of the different congregations must be taken into consideration
in judging of any particular case.
______________________
REQUIRED READING:
Prologue of the Rule of St. Benedict
What, dearest brethren, can be sweeter to us than this voice of the Lord inviting us? See, in His loving kindness, the Lord showeth us the way of life. Therefore, having our loins girt with faith and the performance of good works, let us walk His ways under the guidance of the Gospel, that we may be found worthy of seeing Him who hath called us to His kingdom (cf 1 Thes 2:12).
If we desire to dwell in the tabernacle of His kingdom, we cannot reach it in any way, unless we run thither by good works. But let us ask the Lord with the Prophet, saying to Him: "Lord, who shall dwell in Thy tabernacle, or who shall rest in Thy holy hill" (Ps 14[15]:1)?
After this question, brethren, let us listen to the Lord answering and showing us the way to this tabernacle, saying: "He that walketh without blemish and worketh justice; he that speaketh truth in his heart; who hath not used deceit in his tongue, nor hath done evil to his neighbor, nor hath taken up a reproach against his neighbor" (Ps 14[15]:2-3), who hath brought to naught the foul demon tempting him, casting him out of his heart with his temptation, and hath taken his evil thoughts whilst they were yet weak and hath dashed them against Christ (cf Ps 14[15]:4; Ps 136[137]:9); who fearing the Lord are not puffed up by their goodness of life, but holding that the actual good which is in them cannot be done by themselves, but by the Lord, they praise the Lord working in them (cf Ps 14[15]:4), saying with the Prophet: "Not to us, O Lord, not to us; by to Thy name give glory" (Ps 113[115:1]:9). Thus also the Apostle Paul hath not taken to himself any credit for his preaching, saying: "By the grace of God, I am what I am" (1 Cor 15:10). And again he saith: "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord" (2 Cor 10:17).
Hence, the Lord also saith in the Gospel: "He that heareth these my words and doeth them, shall be likened to a wise man who built his house upon a rock; the floods came, the winds blew, and they beat upon that house, and it fell not, for it was founded on a rock" (Mt 7:24-25). The Lord fulfilling these words waiteth for us from day to day, that we respond to His holy admonitions by our works. Therefore, our days are lengthened to a truce for the amendment of the misdeeds of our present life; as the Apostle saith: "Knowest thou not that the patience of God leadeth thee to penance" (Rom 2:4)? For the good Lord saith: "I will not the death of the sinner, but that he be converted and live" (Ezek 33:11).
Now, brethren, that we have asked the Lord who it is that shall dwell in His tabernacle, we have heard the conditions for dwelling
there; and if we fulfil the duties of tenants, we shall be heirs of the kingdom of heaven. Our hearts and our bodies must, therefore, be ready to do battle under the biddings of holy obedience; and let us ask the Lord that He supply by the help of His grace what is impossible to us by nature. And if, flying from the pains of hell, we desire to reach life everlasting, then, while there is yet time, and we are still in the flesh, and are able during the present life to fulfil all these things, we must make haste to do now what will profit us forever.
We are, therefore, about to found a school of the Lord's service, in which we hope to introduce nothing harsh or burdensome. But even if, to correct vices or to preserve charity, sound reason dictateth anything that turneth out somewhat stringent, do not at once fly in dismay from the way of salvation, the beginning of which cannot but be narrow. But as we advance in the religious life and faith, we shall run the way of God's commandments with expanded hearts and unspeakable sweetness of love; so that never departing from His guidance and persevering in the monastery in His doctrine till death, we may by patience share in the sufferings of Christ, and be found worthy to be coheirs with Him of His kingdom.
